Amazoniac
Member
- Differential metabolism of choline supplements in adult volunteers
"Because animal data indicate that the metabolism of free choline, GPC and PC is different [31], we set out to compare GPC, as characteristic for milk, and egg-PC, as characteristic of mixed and vegetarian food, with free choline in the forms of its chloride and bitartrate salts to elucidate potential clinically relevant differences in bioavailability, plasma kinetics, and metabolism. Phosphocholine was not analyzed because it is not available as a food supplement."
"The test subjects had to drink the adequate intake (AI) of choline according to NAM (550 mg/d) [12] in the form of:
"Notably, all supplements tested increased choline concentrations by a similar extent. A single dose of 550 mg choline temporarily increased plasma concentrations followed by a rapid decline thereafter so that concentrations after 6 h had nearly reached baseline values for all components. This is surprising as previous data demonstrated a longer-lasting increase in plasma choline in response to egg or soya PC [32]. However, aspects of solubility, i.e., product quality, may contribute to the velocity of PC assimilation, and we only supplemented 4018 mg egg-PC equivalent to 550 mg choline, whereas others used the five-fold amount (20 g) [32]."
"However, the increase of plasma choline and betaine was delayed after egg-PC compared to other supplements, with a flatter slope of increase and a time to peak concentration of approximately 3 h rather than 1–2 h. This delay is consistent with the mechanism of choline assimilation from PC that requires cleavage of PC at the surface of duodenal lipid micelles to lyso-PC and free fatty acid by pancreatic phospholipase A2 IB (sPLA2IB) at alkaline small intestinal pH [33]. While choline, according to our data and those of other researchers, is readily assimilated from PC in healthy individuals it must be noted that this process is compromised in exocrine pancreas insufficiency and acidic small intestine pH, as the case in CF patients [26, 34]."
"All supplements increased plasma betaine concentrations to a similar extent and with similar kinetics, demonstrating that for all supplements a comparable fraction of choline is rapidly degraded to betaine, and that the similar absorption kinetic of choline resulted in a similar kinetic of betaine. Hence, there are apparently no major differences between choline-containing components with respect to their oxidation to betaine. For all substances, the increase in plasma betaine is higher than that of choline, suggesting that feeding the one-carbon pool via betaine is an important aspect of any choline supplementation. Although, for the administration of egg-PC, part of the absorbed lyso-PC is re-acylated to PC and used for the formation of chylomicrons, our data show that there is no difference between PC and the other components with respect to plasma betaine. It is unclear whether this will change after consuming larger amounts of PC or if PC is administered with larger amounts of fat rather than those contained in a butter pretzel."
"Notably, egg-PC did not induce an increase in plasma TMAO in any study participant, including those forming high amounts of TMAO upon the ingestion of choline chloride, choline bitartrate, and GPC. Moreover, the ingestion of choline bitartrate exerted the highest increase in three out of five individuals, although individual responses were different. Apparently, the formation of TMA and TMAO depends on individual microbiota, but may be influenced by many factors, like occult inflammation or intestinal transit time."
"In this study, we assessed healthy male adults. Women were excluded because of the impact of estrogens on PEMT activity and hence choline metabolism. Transfer of the results of this study to other patient groups such as women and particularly preterm infants should be undertaken with caution. Whereas the kinetics of choline chloride are identical in adult CF patients compared to healthy persons, age, hormones, the microbiome, pancreatic insufficiency and immature digestive enzymes may influence the uptake and metabolism of choline supplements [1; 16], suggesting further studies."
"The test subjects had to drink the adequate intake (AI) of choline according to NAM (550 mg/d) [12] in the form of:
– 740 mg choline chloride
– 1336 mg choline bitartrate
– 1358 mg GPC
– 4018 mg egg-PC."
– 1336 mg choline bitartrate
– 1358 mg GPC
– 4018 mg egg-PC."
"Notably, all supplements tested increased choline concentrations by a similar extent. A single dose of 550 mg choline temporarily increased plasma concentrations followed by a rapid decline thereafter so that concentrations after 6 h had nearly reached baseline values for all components. This is surprising as previous data demonstrated a longer-lasting increase in plasma choline in response to egg or soya PC [32]. However, aspects of solubility, i.e., product quality, may contribute to the velocity of PC assimilation, and we only supplemented 4018 mg egg-PC equivalent to 550 mg choline, whereas others used the five-fold amount (20 g) [32]."
"However, the increase of plasma choline and betaine was delayed after egg-PC compared to other supplements, with a flatter slope of increase and a time to peak concentration of approximately 3 h rather than 1–2 h. This delay is consistent with the mechanism of choline assimilation from PC that requires cleavage of PC at the surface of duodenal lipid micelles to lyso-PC and free fatty acid by pancreatic phospholipase A2 IB (sPLA2IB) at alkaline small intestinal pH [33]. While choline, according to our data and those of other researchers, is readily assimilated from PC in healthy individuals it must be noted that this process is compromised in exocrine pancreas insufficiency and acidic small intestine pH, as the case in CF patients [26, 34]."
"All supplements increased plasma betaine concentrations to a similar extent and with similar kinetics, demonstrating that for all supplements a comparable fraction of choline is rapidly degraded to betaine, and that the similar absorption kinetic of choline resulted in a similar kinetic of betaine. Hence, there are apparently no major differences between choline-containing components with respect to their oxidation to betaine. For all substances, the increase in plasma betaine is higher than that of choline, suggesting that feeding the one-carbon pool via betaine is an important aspect of any choline supplementation. Although, for the administration of egg-PC, part of the absorbed lyso-PC is re-acylated to PC and used for the formation of chylomicrons, our data show that there is no difference between PC and the other components with respect to plasma betaine. It is unclear whether this will change after consuming larger amounts of PC or if PC is administered with larger amounts of fat rather than those contained in a butter pretzel."
"Notably, egg-PC did not induce an increase in plasma TMAO in any study participant, including those forming high amounts of TMAO upon the ingestion of choline chloride, choline bitartrate, and GPC. Moreover, the ingestion of choline bitartrate exerted the highest increase in three out of five individuals, although individual responses were different. Apparently, the formation of TMA and TMAO depends on individual microbiota, but may be influenced by many factors, like occult inflammation or intestinal transit time."
"In this study, we assessed healthy male adults. Women were excluded because of the impact of estrogens on PEMT activity and hence choline metabolism. Transfer of the results of this study to other patient groups such as women and particularly preterm infants should be undertaken with caution. Whereas the kinetics of choline chloride are identical in adult CF patients compared to healthy persons, age, hormones, the microbiome, pancreatic insufficiency and immature digestive enzymes may influence the uptake and metabolism of choline supplements [1; 16], suggesting further studies."