Taurine-induced Diuresis And Natriuresis In Cirrhotic Patients With Ascites

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Fig 12.
Taurine in health and diseases: consistent evidence from experimental and epidemiological studies

Never heard of cattle fish before.
Oysters are an impressive source of nutrition all round,scallops might be ideal here as they contain glycine also.

 

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The average daily synthesis [from methionine and cysteine] in adults ranges between 0.4-1.0 mmol (50-125 mg)

Imagine the difference that some supplemental taurine can make:
Taurine and inflammatory diseases

 

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Imagine the difference that some supplemental taurine can make:
Taurine and inflammatory diseases

"Acute inflammation is a physiological response of tissues to harmful stimuli such as pathogens, damaged cells or cancer cells and irritants. This response, mediated predominantly by innate immunity, is responsible for elimination of these injurious stimuli and for the subsequent healing process. The major cells involved in acute inflammation are neutrophils: phagocytes responsible for microbial killing and for generation of various proinflammatory mediators. The myeloperoxidase–halide system plays a unique role in killing pathogens phagocytosed by neutrophils (Klebanoff 1968, 2005) through generation of hypochlorous acid (HOCl), a potent microbicidal and cytotoxic oxidant (Thomas 1979)." "Upon contact with a pathogen, activated phagocytes (both neutrophils and macrophages) produce a respiratory burst characterized by intense uptake of oxygen."

"Both hypohalous acids, HOCl and HOBr, are components of innate immunity and protect the host from infections by using their oxidizing potential to kill pathogens, but they may also damage host tissue. The microbicidal effects of HOCl have been linked to oxidation of methionine residues in bacterial cytosolic and inner membrane proteins (Rosen et al. 2009). On the other hand, overproduction of these oxidants and insufficient neutralization by antioxidants may lead to the development of oxidative stress and chronic inflammation (Smith 1994; Weiss 1988). Such a scenario may contribute to pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases, in which the neutrophil MPO–halide system is involved (Fig. 1). The above information clearly suggests that antioxidants play a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and in amelioration of the harmful effect of oxidative stress."

"In humans, taurine is formed from methionine and cysteine metabolism via hypotaurine in hepatocytes. Other cells (e.g., neutrophils) contain very high concentrations of taurine due to taurine uptake from the blood, a source of both endogenous and diet taurine (Fig. 2) (Bouckenooghe et al. 2006)."

"The biosynthetic capacity of humans to produce taurine is limited in neonates (the effect amplified by prematurity) and also declines with aging and some pathological stages (trauma, sepsis). In these situations, the diet is likely to be an important taurine source (Redmond et al. 1998)."

"the primary role of taurine is cytoprotection and maintaining homeostasis of cells involved in acute and chronic inflammatory/oxidative stress"

"Taurine is found at particularly high concentrations in tissues exposed to elevated levels of oxidants, suggesting its role in the attenuation of oxidative stress (Green et al. 1991; Jeon et al. 2009; Oliveira et al. 2010)." "The best established antioxidant action of taurine is neutralization of hypochlorous acid (HOCl), an extremely toxic oxidant generated by the MPO–halide system (Weiss et al. 1982). This activity explains the anti-inflammatory properties of taurine, as its reaction with HOCl results in generation of taurine chloramine (TauCl), a more stable and less toxic anti-inflammatory mediator (Weiss et al. 1982; Thomas 1979) (Fig. 4)."

"Therefore, taurine may be considered the component of innate immunity with a special impact on the development of acute inflammation. However, not all of the antioxidant actions of taurine are related to HOCl, because they can occur in systems lacking neutrophils. Although taurine is incapable of directly scavenging classical ROS, it has been suggested that it is an effective inhibitor of ROS generation. It has been shown that taurine enhances expression and activities of antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase (Jang et al. 2009)."

"It is well known that oxidants generated by phagocytes at a site of inflammation are involved in host defense against microbes. Among them, hypohalous acids (HOCl, HOBr), extremely strong microbicidal agents, play a crucial role in killing of pathogens by neutrophils and eosinophils. They can kill a wide spectrum of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, fungi (yeast and molds), viruses, protozoa and worm larvae (Klebanoff 1968; Weiss 1988; Thomas et al. 1995)."

"TauCl, the product of activated neutrophils, reaches micromolar concentrations (<100 µM) at the site of inflammation. At these physiological concentrations and at neutral pH, TauCl shows very weak antimicrobial activity. However, in acidic milieu which is typical for an inflammatory environment (pH 4–6), the ability of TauCl to kill pathogens increases significantly due to formation of the more potent TauCl2 (taurine dichloramine). TauCl2 is more bactericidal than TauCl, especially against Gram-negative bacteria, probably due to better penetration into bacteria." "However, it has not been proven whether endogenous TauCl also contributes to the killing of microbes in vivo."

"Our preliminary data suggest that taurine haloamines, especially TauBr, are promising candidates in the local therapy of biofilm-associated infections such as chronic sinusitis, otitis media, acne vulgaris and periodontal diseases."

"As systemic therapy with taurine haloamines seems to be impossible, an alternative, novel strategy may be to administer taurine itself as a prodrug. Taurine supplementation may be predicted to enhance local formation of TauCl or TauBr, as exogenous taurine will react with endogenous HOCl/HOBr. Such strategies may be effective in inflammatory conditions associated with local infiltration of neutrophils, for example chronic sinusitis, inflammatory bowel disease and rheumatoid arthritis. So far, the beneficial effect of such strategy has been documented in experimental colitis treated with 5-aminosalicyltaurine (taurine conjugated with 5-ASA) (Kim et al. 2006; Joo et al. 2009), in dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced experimental colitis in mice attenuated by dietary taurine supplementation (Shimizu et al. 2009) and in collagen-induced arthritis treated with taurolidine (Marcinkiewicz et al. 2006a, b)."

 

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Taurine: new implications for an old amino acid | FEMS Microbiology Letters | Oxford Academic

"Taurine, a sulfur-containing amino acid present in high concentrations in mammalian plasma and cells, plays an important role in several essential biological processes such as development of the central nervous system (CNS) and the retina, calcium modulation, membrane stabilization, reproduction, and immunity [1–3]. In fact, taurine is the single most abundant amino acid in leukocytes (20–50 mM) [4]."

"For cats and primates, deficiency of dietary taurine results in abnormalities in development of the CNS, retinal and tapetal degeneration, as well as significant changes in the cardiovascular and reproductive systems. These changes are also accompanied by abnormalities in the immune system [3]."

"Taurine is found in particularly high concentrations in tissues exposed to elevated levels of oxidants."

"Wang et al. [14] demonstrated that taurine and niacin reduced the inflammation and fibrosis caused by bleomycin. This group also reported that taurine and niacin blocked the bleomycin-induced increased production of nitric oxide in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, as well as the overexpression of iNOS mRNA and NOS protein in lung tissue [15]."

"Bleomycin-induced lung injury results in dysregulated matrix remodeling, leading to thickened alveolar walls, alveolar collapse and scarring [18]. Fibrosis culminates in the overproduction of interstitial collagen. Fibrosis is strikingly absent and inflammation is reduced in the lung of rats pretreated with 5% taurine in the drinking water for 10 days prior to bleomycin instillation [18]."

"Leukocytes capable of generating hypochlorous acid (HOCI) from H2O2 and chloride via the myeloperoxidase (MPO) pathway have intracellular concentrations of taurine from 20–50 mM. Moreover, in physiological fluid, extracellular taurine concentrations range from 50–100 mM. Taurine reacts with HOCI to produce Tau-Cl, a long-lived stable oxidant. Thus Tau-Cl, a stable oxidant, can be produced at the site of inflammation and modulate pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Specifically, treatment by taurine leads to the reduction of nitric oxide (NO), which is known to cause tissue damage in bleomycin-treated (15) mice as well as a reduction in TNF-neokiDi, which is known to upregulate ICAM production (16). This reduction of proinflammatory mediators by taurine leads to a significant reduction in the immune response and an absence of fibrosis. These data indicate taurine may provide a useful prophylactic approach to oxidant-induced tissue damage."

"Neutrophils and monocytes contain high levels of MPO that along with H2O2 catalyzes the formation of the potent oxidant, HOCl. Taurine scavenges HOCl to form the more stable and less toxic taurine chloramine (Tau-Cl) (17,18)."

"Tau-Cl inhibits in a dose-dependent manner the production of both NO and TNF-ofcoursehimagain"

"Recent studies have demonstrated that Tau-Cl suppressed superoxide anion, IL-6 and IL-8 production in activated human peripheral blood PMNs [26]. In addition, using both adherent and non-adherent leukocytes, many proinflammatory mediators were significantly decreased by Tau-Cl [27]. Choray et al. have confirmed and extended these finding using LPS-stimulated peripheral blood monocytes from humans [28]."

"Exciting studies from Suzuki et al. [34] demonstrate the first reported evidence taurine is a constituent of biologic macromolecules, which is a significant new insight into the function of taurine."

"Kanayama et al. [35] report Tau-Cl-induced inhibition of NF-κB activation by the oxidation of IκB-α. Deletion experiments showed that the Tau-Cl modification site causing the band shift is Met45, indicating that Met45 oxidation is a molecular mechanism underlying the Tau-Cl-induced inhibition of NF-κB."

"To maintain adequate level of taurine in the tissues, taurine is tightly regulated by excretion and reabsorption by the kidney [41]. The taurine transporter in proximal tubule brush border membranes appears to be the primary target for adaptive regulation by dietary availability of taurine."

"Taurine has been shown to be tissue-protective in many models of oxidant-induced injury. Early events in inflammations include migration of leukocytes to the site of injury. These inflammatory cells produce high levels of HOCl via the MPO pathway and the abundance of taurine assures the production of Tau-Cl. Data show that Tau-Cl can be actively transported into leukocytes and can down-regulate the production of inflammatory mediators."​

Taurine and Its Chloramine: Modulators of Immunity (similar review by a common author)

Taurine chloramine inhibits production of nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2 in activated C6 glioma cells by suppressing inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 expression - ScienceDirect